For more than two millennia, the Bayanbulag fortress stood silent in the arid landscapes of southern Mongolia, its stones weathered by time and shifting empires. But beneath its surface, an ancient mass grave held the story of a brutal encounter between two of East Asia’s most formidable powers: the Han Dynasty of China and the nomadic Xiongnu.
The site was first unearthed in 2009 when archaeologists noticed human bones protruding from the eroded banks of a stream near the fortress ruins. What they uncovered was grim—at least 17 individuals, their remains showing clear signs of violence. Skulls had been separated from bodies. Limbs had been severed. Some of the dead had died with their arms raised, as if trying to shield themselves from an executioner’s blow.
For years, researchers debated who these people were. Were they Han soldiers, stationed at the fortress to hold back Xiongnu incursions? Or were they Xiongnu warriors, cut down in an attempt to breach the walls? Now, a study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science1 has used ancient DNA and isotopic analysis to answer that question—and in doing so, has provided new insight into a war that shaped the history of East Asia.
A Fortress on the Front Line
More than 2,000 years ago, the Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu Confederation were locked in a war for dominance over the Mongolian Plateau and surrounding regions. For nearly two centuries, these conflicts ebbed and flowed, with the Xiongnu raiding Han settlements and the Han launching retaliatory campaigns into the steppe.
Bayanbulag, the fortress near which the mass grave was found, is believed to have been a key military outpost during this period. Some scholars suspect it might even be Shouxiangcheng, a fortress documented in Chinese records and built in 104 BCE during a Han campaign against the Xiongnu. The site itself offers clues that support a Han presence—archaeologists have uncovered crossbow fragments and hundreds of crossbow-related arrowheads, weapons exclusive to Han forces at the time. However, some researchers remained skeptical about the site's identity.
To clarify the history of the fortress, archaeologists turned to the remains of those who died there. If they could determine whether the skeletons belonged to Han or Xiongnu individuals, they could finally confirm which side controlled the site during this battle.
Identifying the Dead
A research team led by Cui Yinqiu at Jilin University extracted and sequenced DNA from 14 of the skeletons in the grave. When they compared the results to genetic data from other ancient populations in East Asia, a clear pattern emerged—the individuals in the mass grave shared the closest genetic ties with populations from the Yellow River Basin, the heartland of the Han Dynasty.
Further support came from isotopic analysis. By measuring the chemical signatures in the bones, which reflect diet and geographic origins, researchers determined that these individuals consumed a varied diet of both plants and meat. This dietary pattern was consistent with the Han, whereas the Xiongnu—who practiced a more pastoral lifestyle—relied more heavily on meat and dairy.
Taken together, the genetic and isotopic evidence strongly suggested that the victims were Han soldiers, likely part of a garrison at the fortress. Their bodies had been left behind in the aftermath of a massacre—one in which, according to the researchers, “the Xiongnu did not take any prisoners.”
The Aftermath of the War
The Han-Xiongnu Wars ultimately ended with the downfall of the Xiongnu Confederation. Over time, some Xiongnu groups fled westward, possibly contributing to the emergence of the Huns, who would later challenge the Roman Empire. The Han, meanwhile, secured their dominance over much of what is now northern China and Mongolia, expanding their influence into Central Asia.
Bayanbulag, and the soldiers who died there, represent a pivotal moment in this long and bloody struggle. Their deaths, once a mystery buried in the earth, now serve as a historical marker—one that reveals both the horrors of ancient warfare and the ambitions of empires that shaped the history of East Asia.
The Future of Bayanbulag
Despite the importance of Bayanbulag, less than 10% of the site has been excavated. Meanwhile, scavengers searching for metal artifacts continue to disturb the ruins. Researchers hope that by bringing attention to the site's historical significance, further excavations can be carried out—and the stories of those who lived and died there can be preserved.
As study co-author Alexey Kovalev of the Russian Academy of Sciences notes,
"Marauders with metal detectors are working at this site. It falls to archaeologists to protect the fortress."
Related Research
Miller, B. K. (2021). "Xiongnu and the Han: Military strategies and steppe diplomacy." Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 23(2), 89-112.
Examines the strategic interactions between the Han and Xiongnu during their prolonged conflict.
DOI: 10.1080/10929821.2021.1942932
Kim, H. J. (2016). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press.
Explores the connections between the Xiongnu, the Huns, and the broader movement of nomadic groups into Europe.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781316421951
Di Cosmo, N. (2002). Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press.
Investigates how the conflict between the Han and Xiongnu shaped military and political structures in ancient China.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511605721
The massacre at Bayanbulag is just one chapter in the long history of warfare between settled empires and nomadic confederations. With further research, the site may continue to provide new perspectives on a conflict that shaped the history of East Asia.
Ma, P., Ma, M., Sun, B., Li, C., Dong, J., Dong, G., Erdenebaatar, D., Kovalev, A., & Cui, Y. (2025). Bioarchaeological perspectives on the ancient Han-Xiongnu war: Insights from the Iron Age site of Bayanbulag. Journal of Archaeological Science, 177(106184), 106184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2025.106184
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